Technology is Changing the Way We Listen to Music essays

Technology is Changing the Way We Listen to Music essays Downloading MP3s from the Internet should be made legal. An MP3 is a near CD quality digital recording of a musical piece that is compressed so it can be distributed through the Internet (Simple Net). High prices, new technology, and availability are causing most music lovers to turn to the Internet to listen to their music. It's convenient to search a computer database for a song you've been wanting to hear by your favorite artist, download it, and copy it on to a CD. More and more people are doing this because with the help of search engines it's possible to find any song imaginable and download it for free. What most people don't realize is that the reproduction of a musical work, distribution of copies of a musical piece, and the public performance of the work without the copyright owner's consent are all violations of copyright laws (Anderman and Paez 5). However, they do know that getting caught for this crime is very unlikely. Catching those who violate copyright laws is very tricky because in most cases it's hard to tell who is at fault. Because of very detailed, complicated copyright laws even prosecuting a web site for promoting pirated music is almost too difficult to attempt. New digital audio compression technologies have made promoting, distributing, and selling music very easy (5). Sound files called MPEG 1 Layer 3 or MP3 for short allow users to download digital quality music for free over the Internet. These compressed audio files can be played on an individual's computer by using special software. With the help of CD-writers, a relatively new computer technology that allows people to create there own CDs, illegal copies of the copyrighted material can be made at near compact disc quality (Anderman and Paez 6). Portable MP3 players have now been developed that make pirating songs even easier. Instead of having to search for and buy expensive music, people are simply downloading the songs they want and de...

Making Communication Count Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Making Communication Count - Essay Example This can lead to negative impact in the workplace or at home. Incidences of ineffective communication have been witnessed in the case of senior policemen, politicians, newspaper editors among others. Therefore, it is vital for a person to understand his communication skills in order to determine whether he is communicating in an effective manner to other parties (Papa, 2014). This paper will evaluate a scenario that targets the use of verbal and non-verbal communication skills in an effective manner, and how to foster effective communication in an organization. In an organizational setting, ineffective communication manifests itself either in a verbal or nonverbal mode of interaction. For instance, ineffective verbal communication is vague, uses jargon, and is hard to follow. Conversely, ineffective nonverbal communication takes place when verbal messages fail to rhyme with nonverbal actions. With regard to verbal communication, there are those people who tend to overwhelm their audience with words. When a listener is overwhelmed, he does not have the time to gather his thoughts on what is being said. The listener also finds it difficult to elaborate the situation in order to gather more understanding. In case communication flows for a long time, then it becomes irrelevant to those people who get switched off (Manning & Curtis, 2003). A number of managers have been noted to communicate to their listeners what they feel is appropriate to them with the hope that they can do something about it. However, this path makes the listeners to switch off for failing to address their needs in an effective manner. Also, some senior executives in an organization assume that their listeners have understood what they are talking about. This is the case where people do not understand the language being used because it is their second language. This leads to confusion,

A Missin Sttement nd Strtegies f NEXT Plc Essay

A Missin Sttement nd Strtegies f NEXT Plc - Essay Example ClÐ ¾thes retÐ °ilers fÐ °ll intÐ ¾ twÐ ¾ brÐ ¾Ã °d cÐ °tegÐ ¾ries: firstly, thÐ ¾se selling Ð ¾wn-brÐ °nd clÐ ¾thing Ð °nd, secÐ ¾ndly, thÐ ¾se selling third-pÐ °rty weÐ °r. MÐ °jÐ ¾r retÐ °ilers such Ð °s MÐ °rks & Spencer Ð °nd the Ð rcÐ °diÐ ° GrÐ ¾up Ð °re gÐ ¾Ã ¾d exÐ °mples Ð ¾f the first grÐ ¾up, Ð °s Ð °re chÐ °in Ð ¾perÐ °tiÐ ¾ns such Ð °s NEXT Ð °nd GÐ °p. The secÐ ¾nd grÐ ¾up includes the mÐ °jÐ ¾r depÐ °rtment stÐ ¾res Ð °nd the mÐ °jÐ ¾rity Ð ¾f independent retÐ °ilers in the UK. ClÐ ¾thing retÐ °iling is Ð ° highly diverse industry. The retÐ °il sectÐ ¾r rÐ °nges frÐ ¾m lÐ ¾w-cÐ ¾st Ð °nd discÐ ¾unts retÐ °ilers thrÐ ¾ugh tÐ ¾ independents, spÐ ¾rtsweÐ °r, fÐ ¾rmÐ °l weÐ °r Ð °nd highly exclusive designer bÐ ¾utiques. HÐ ¾wever, Ð °s in mÐ ¾st cÐ ¾nsumer gÐ ¾Ã ¾ds mÐ °rkets, it is Ð °t the middle level where the mÐ °jÐ ¾r plÐ °yers Ð °re tÐ ¾ be fÐ ¾und Ð °nd mÐ ¾ney cÐ °n be e Ð °rned. The pÐ ¾liticÐ °l envirÐ ¾nment Ð ¾f the NEXT plc is quite gÐ ¾Ã ¾d Ð °s the stÐ °ble Ð °nd reliÐ °ble nÐ ¾twithstÐ °nding thÐ °t BritÐ °in fÐ °iled tÐ ¾ reÐ °ch the Ð °greement with sÐ ¾me EU pÐ ¾licies frÐ ¾m time tÐ ¾ time. Ð t the present nÐ ¾ EU directives Ð °re knÐ ¾wn which will hÐ °ve Ð ° direct effect Ð ¾n the UK clÐ ¾thing retÐ °il industry in the neÐ °r future. Due tÐ ¾ the EU membership Ð ° trend cÐ °n be seen tÐ ¾wÐ °rds stricter envirÐ ¾nmentÐ °l prÐ ¾tectiÐ ¾n legislÐ °tiÐ ¾n. This mÐ °y hÐ °ve Ð ° direct Ð ¾r indirect effect Ð ¾n NEXT Ð ¾r his suppliers. LÐ ¾Ã ¾king Ð °t the ecÐ ¾nÐ ¾mic envirÐ ¾nment, it is sÐ ¾mewhÐ °t tricky since Ð ¾n the Ð ¾ne hÐ °nd there is the strÐ ¾ng sterling cÐ ¾mpÐ °red tÐ ¾ the EurÐ ¾. EurÐ ¾lÐ °nd encÐ ¾urÐ °ges impÐ ¾rts Ð °nd endeÐ °vÐ ¾urs tÐ ¾ hÐ ¾ld dÐ ¾mestic prices Ð °t Ð °n Ð °ttrÐ °ctive level. But Ð ¾n the Ð ¾ther hÐ °nd it is difficu lt fÐ ¾r the UK tÐ ¾ be cÐ ¾mpetitive Ð ¾utside its bÐ ¾undÐ °ries becÐ °use Ð ¾f the high pÐ ¾und sterling exchÐ °nge rÐ °te Ð °gÐ °inst the EurÐ ¾.

Capital Punishment Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Capital Punishment - Term Paper Example From the research it can be comprehended that the doctrine of birth and death are the most obvious and the unpredictable events in the Nature. Since time immemorial such has been the nature of occurrence. With the spread of civilizations, the greed and lust of mankind reached an epitome and uncontrolled desire of achievement lead to loss of human values. The seriousness of the degradation leads to crimes, wars, battles and loss of innumerable human life. The concept of punishment came into existence among humans and even life of people was not spared in providing penalty for their ill deeds. The age –old theory of capital punishment was immensely popular among the Phoenicians, Persian, Egyptians, Romans, Greeks, Chinese civilization, where the brutal act of convict prosecution was done by taking away their life. The process of killing was carried out in horrendous fashion, which turned the punishment to be more excruciating. Modes of capital punishment were innovated with diff erent procedures and the shameful act was carried out unremittingly. Ironically the modern era also did portray their interest and used modern technologies to kill the convicts in atrocious manner. Significantly the act of capital punishment was even carried among the juveniles till the last decade, and surprisingly the proclaimed super power developed nations of the world were a part of this severe in-humanitarian policy. Thesis Statement Capital punishment should be abolished from the world and in particular the act of juvenile capital punishment needs to be barred, as this extreme measure does not preclude the miscreants from committing further crimes. Capital punishment: A brief history The history of Capital punishment or death penalty is quite enriched with events and the start of the timeline of capital punishment begins in eighteenth century in Babylon under the regime of King Hammaurabi. The law related to death penalty covered 25 different crimes. Crucifixion, drowning, im palement, beating to death were some of the measures of providing capital punishment. In the sixteenth century, burning, beheading, drawing and quartering carried out executions. 222 crimes were listed under the execution of capital punishment in Britain, which even included mere acts of cutting down a tree. Lingering death was provided to the serious convicts on account of heinous crime where as lesser degree of criminal acts by the convicts resulted in quick and painless death (Introduction to the death penalty, n.d). In China during the medieval period many cases of death through thousand cuts and slow slicing were noted. The colonist in America induced the capital punishment in the state and 12 capital crimes were identified. The range of capital punishment varied across different part of the states. Some of the states provided limited control. The Northern colony limited its use. Idolatry, blasphemy, traitors were dealt under the jurisdiction of capital punishment. In spite of the less enthusiasm followed in some parts of America regarding capital punishment, but the massive colonization in America made capital punishment popular all over the country. The major reason cited for the implementation of capital punishment was to control the rate of occurrence of crime. However in the end of eighteenth century, only incidents of first-degree murders were punished till death. In the southern states the punishment was imposed to control on the actions of slaves. Evidence of racial discrimination prevailed in the process of atonement as the white people committing same sort of acts was relieved by mere compensation whereas the law of capital punishment was enforced on the other civilians of the society. The age-old tradition of capital punishment continued to leave its impact in the present modern era. Boundary of capital punishment though reduced and imposed on serious crimes, new methods were invented to carry on with the execution. Guillotine, Gas chambers, el ectric chairs, lethal injections became popular as modes of homicides. The incidents of capital punish

Research Issues in Parapsychology Essay -- survival-after-bodily-death

"I shall not commit the fashionable stupidity of regarding everything I cannot explain as a fraud." -C.G. Jung (Society for Psychical Research) "Parapsychology is a belief in search of data rather than data in search of an explanation." -C.E.M. Hansel (Alcock ix) For years, ghosts and poltergeists have been a part of our popular lexicon. From stories told around the campfire, to motion pictures like The Haunting, to books like the Scary Story series, everyone has heard a good ghost story or two. Many people claim to have actually been party to a few supernatural experiences themselves. But for as long as we have told these frightful stories, science has been attempting to explain them beyond the typical bump in the dark. This investigation into the paranormal eventually evolved into the field of parapsychology. Current research in parapsychology has three focuses: psychokinesis (PK), extrasensory perception (ESP), and survival-after-bodily-death experiences. Psychokenisis is direct mental interaction with objects animate or inanimate. Extrasensory perception is a general term for obtaining information about events beyond the reach of the normal senses ("Parapsychology FAQ"). Survival-after-bodily-death is the investigation into events and phenomena dealing with life after death. In this paper, I intend to look at parapsychology and the study of survival-after-bodily-death. This area of parapsychology is perhaps the most recognizable, yet also the least investigated. I intend to look at the rise of this field of inquiry as a science, the arguments for it and against it, and why survival-after-bodily-death is not as prominent a field as it once was. History Parapsychology's roots can be traced back to the... ...botree.com/ [Accessed 20 April 1999]. Parapsychological Association (1999, Dec.). Parapsychology FAQ. [Online]. Available: http://www.parapsych.org [Accessed 20 April 1999]. Price, Harry. Confessions of a Ghost-Hunter. Putnam & Company: London, 1936. "Online Research in Parapsychology." Encyclopà ¦dia Britannica. [Online] Available: http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=70964&sctn=1 [Accessed 26 April 1999]. Rhine, Louisa E. The Invisible Picture. McFarland & Company: Jefferson, 1981. Society for Psychical Research. [Online]. Available: http://129.215.50.44/spr.html [Accessed 20 April 1999]. Tyrrell, G. N. M. Apparitions. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd.: London, 1953 Weiner, Debra H. and Radin, Dean I., eds. Research in Parapsychology 1985. The Scarecrow Press, Inc.: Metuchen, 1986. Wilson, Colin. Mysteries. New York: G.E. Putnam's Sons, 1978.

Critically evaluate piaget’s theory of cognitive development Essay

Piaget has been described as the father of cognitive psychology (Shaffer, 1988) and his stage theory as the foundation of developmental cognitive psychology (Lutz & Sternberg, 2002). It is not possible to describe Piaget’s empirical findings and theory in only 1,500 words. Instead, I will briefly review the theory’s scope, comprehensiveness, parsimony, applicability, heuristic value and methodological underpinning. I will then evaluate in more detail the theory’s utility in describing and explaining cognitive development. Historically, Piaget’s ontological approach was ground-breaking with its focus on the qualitative nature of cognition and its constructivist perspective. The theory itself is wide-scoped (universal), comprehensive (covering a broad spectrum of cognitive achievement) and elegantly coherent (from neonate to adult). It remains profoundly influential on cognitive psychology and continues to be widely applied in childcare and educational settings. Piaget’s theory is parsimonious in its commonality of approach to a broad range of complex phenomena with key interlinking concepts. Inevitably, such an ambitious theory has generated a wealth of research, some supporting, some supplementing, some extending and some disputing aspects of Piaget’s theory. Some of the weaker aspects of Piaget’s theory appear to arise from his ‘clinical method’ of using observational behavioural data to infer conclusions about children’s underlying cognitive competences. Longitudinal data, ideally suited to monitoring progression, was only recorded for his own three children. Certain of his techniques were insufficiently sensitive to identify the underlying causes of performance variations, especially with very young infants, where more recent habituation techniques have shown that Piaget considerably underestimated their understanding and ability (Bower, 1982, Baillargeon & DeVos, 1991). This may have led him to overlook other relevant explanations for varying levels of performance, eg limitations on memory capacity (Bryant & Trabasso, 1971, Kail, 1984, Diamond, 1985), motor-co-ordination (Mandler, 1990), availability of memory strategies (Siegler, 1991) and verbal understanding (Sternberg, 1985). However, Piaget’s clinical method, his flexible and ecologically valid approach did reveal original insights into children’s thinking, which a more standardised, ‘scientific’ approach may have overlooked entirely. Piaget’s theoretical framework describes the structure of cognitive development as a fixed sequence of four discontinuous and qualitatively different ‘periods’ (for ease of understanding, referred to as stages) of all children’s intelligence across domains, tasks and contexts. Invariance is a core feature of Piaget’s conceptual structure, in contrast with contemporary perspectives, which question rigid conceptual structures, eg post-modernism and chaos theory. Piaget emphasised the invariance of progression through stages, so that a child never regresses to thinking methods from an earlier stage of cognitive development. This is empirically unconvincing, eg, as an adult, I have easily switched from formal-operational to concrete-operational thinking when presented with flat-pack furniture and an incomprehensible set of instructions. Research (Beilin, 1971, Case, 1992) has also contradicted the assumption that within a given stage of development, children demonstrate only stage-appropriate levels of performance, eg 4-year-olds make the same mistakes as 1-year-olds on some hidden-object problems by looking at locations where they have found the object previously (Siegler, 1998). Structural, qualitative discontinuity between stages – a key feature in the theory’s description of cognitive development – is also questionable. Although much research has shown that children can do things at ages earlier than Piaget considered possible (Baillargeon, 1987, Mandler, 1998, Diamond, 1991), Piaget focussed on the sequence of progression from one stage to another rather than the respective ages of cognitive achievement. However, because cognitive achievements have often been shown to emerge earlier (and occasionally later if at all, eg certain formal operations) than Piaget’s stages indicate, exactly when these stages begin and end cannot be clearly established. This blurring of boundaries between stages, suggests a spiralling structure of gradual, continuous cognitive development rather  than a stepped structure of discontinuous stages. Piaget’s focus on competence as opposed to performance contributes to the difficulty of determining when one stage becomes qualitatively different from another. What we may be capable of doing optimally (competence) may often differ from what we do actually much of the time (performance) (Davidson & Sternberg, 1985). Even if we accept Piaget’s stages as distinguishing when competences are fully developed and functional not necessarily when they first appear (Lutz & Sternberg, 2002), there is still insufficient evidence that qualitative leaps in cognitive competence can be distinguished between one stage and another. Indeed, Piaget (1970) adjusted his position on the discontinuity of stages, acknowledging that transition from concrete-operational to formal-operational reasoning occurs gradually over a span of several years. Siegler (1998) suggests that catastrophe theory (a mathematical theory which examines sudden changes) explains both the continuous and discontinuous appearance of cognitive development. The forces that lead to the collapse of a bridge may build up over a period of years, however the bridge’s visible collapse appears as a sudden event. Analogously, a child may suddenly solve a problem that she could not solve the day before, but her progress may be due to experience and improved understanding acquired over preceding months. Thus cognitive development may be viewed both as a continuous process of small, imperceptible amendments or as a discontinuous shift from one state to another – depending on when and how closely viewpoints are taken. Bloom (2002) provides a similar argument in refutation of ‘spurts’ in word learning. Piaget initially argued that his stages are universal, ie that they apply to everyone irrespective of their individual experience. Recent research suggests that cultural practices are related to children’s proficiency on tasks (Rogoff, 1990). Piaget (1972) always acknowledged the impact of social and cultural contextual factors on cognitive development but came to revise his claim that his stages are universal, eg by recognising that achieving formal operations is dependent on exposure to the specific type of thinking  found in science classes and on individual motivation to undertake certain types of task. Piaget’s revised stance on universality and the discontinuity of stages also calls into question the theory’s implicit structural premise of cognitive development being domain-general. Piaget refers to stages as holistic structures, with coherent modes of thinking that apply across a broad range of tasks, ie are domain-general. However children do not appear to develop consistently and evenly across all cognitive tasks or even within specific types of cognitive functioning, eg conservation. Piaget explains unevenness of progression, eg, within the domain of conservation, mass is conserved much sooner than volume, by ‘horizontal decalage’, which occurs when problems that appear quite similar in the requirements of underlying knowledge actually differ in the complexity of schemata required. An alternative explanation for perceived unevenness in cognitive development is domain-specificity, ie that specific types of cognitive processing develop separately and a t differing rates from others. One example of domain-specificity for language vs number acquisition occurs in deaf infant’s symbolic-representational ability allowing them to learn American Sign Language as early as 6-7 months, while children’s symbolic-representational ability for number appears months later (Mandler, 1990, Meier & Newport, 1990). Subsequent research (Chomsky, 1986, Fodor, 1983, Chi, 1992 cited in Pine, 1999) has suggested domain-specificity for language, mathematics and logico-spatial reasoning involved in chess! Horizontal decalage is described, at best, as a peripheral element and, at worst, as undermining the theory’s holistic stage structure and domain-generality. To summarise the descriptive utility of Piaget’s theory, it certainly describes the general sequencing of children’s broad intellectual development, although stage-like discontinuity may be a reflection of perspective only. However, the theory appears less accurate in its description of cognitive development as universal, functionally invariant and domain-general. More recent research (Fischer, 1980, Flavell, 1985) suggests that cognitive development occurs gradually and sequentially within particular intellectual domains. Turning to the theory’s explanation of cognitive development, Piaget’s theory explains cognitive development as the result of physical maturation and two basic biological, invariant functions: organisation and adaptation (Lutz & Sternberg, 2002). Organisation is seen as the tendency to organise physical and psychological processes into purposeful, efficient systems. Adaptation occurs via equilibration, namely the seesaw-like balancing of (1) assimilation, ie how children transform incoming information to fit their existing modes of thinking (‘schemata’) and (2) accommodation, ie how children adapt their schemata in response to new experiences. Equilibration integrates physical maturation, experience with the environment and social influences (Miller, 2002). Whilst Piaget’s focus on the active constructivist mechanism of individual/environmental interaction has been highly influential, it does not provide a sufficient explanation of cognitive development. There is little explanation of the physical maturational aspects that are key to cognitive development, such as that provided by subsequent researchers on age-related neural processing improvements (Diamond,1991). More importantly, the processes of adaptation and organisation do not explain how a child’s logical ability is derived from interaction with the environment, eg there is no explanation of how sensorimotor activity is transformed into mental images which are in turn transformed into words. Crucially, Piaget’s theory does not provide any explanation of the mechanism of cognitive transition from one qualitative stage to another. Piaget’s explanation of cognitive development thus appears impoverished. It has been supplemented by social theory, which explicates the role of social interaction in the child’s development (Vygotsky, 1934/1978) and is supported by research into the innate social characteristics of young infants (Meltzoff & Moore, 1994 amongst others cited in Smith, Cowie & Blades, 1998). Information-processing theorists (Case, 1985,) have also explained the contribution of specific areas of cognitive development, such as memory and attention. Other theorists (Karmiloff-Smith, 1992) have  incorporated a combination of approaches into a more holistic explanation of cognitive development. In conclusion, Piaget’s theory appears only broadly accurate in its description of cognitive development. Its explanation of cognitive development is inadequate; only acknowledging but not fully examining the role of social, emotional and contextual factors, underestimating the existence of innate cognitive abilities (Flavell, Miller & Miller, 1993), and ignoring the complex role of language in cognitive development. Nonetheless, Siegler (1998) describes Piaget’s work as ‘a testimony to how much one person can do’. The theory’s heuristic power is undeniable: recent studies of cognitive development have focussed on previously unsuspected cognitive strengths in children and on a broader range of children’s thinking than that investigated by Piaget (Kohlberg, 1984). The theory’s longevity is certainly warranted for its originality and inspiration to others. According to Piaget â€Å"the principal goal of education is to create adults who are capable of doing new things, not simply of repeating what other generations have done – who are creative, inventive, discoverers† (Piaget, 1977 cited in Shaffer, 1998). By this standard, Piaget and his theory of cognitive development must be judged a success for current cognitive psychology. References Baillargeon, R. (1987). Object permanence in 31/2- and 41/2-month old infants. Developmental Psychology, 23, 655-664 Baillargeon, R. & DeVos, J. (1991). Object permanence in young infants: Further evidence. Child Development, 62, 1227-1246 Beilin, H. (1971). Developmental stages and developmental processes. In D.R. Green, M.P. Ford & G.B. Flamer (Eds.) Measurement and Piaget. (pp 172-196) New York:McGraw-Hill Bloom, P. (2002). How children learn the meaning of words. New York: Oxford University Press Bower, T.G.R. (1982 ). Development in Infancy 2nd Ed. San Francisco: WH Freeman Bryant, P.E. & Trabasso, T. (1971). Transitive inferences and memory in young children. Nature, 232, 456-458 Case, R. (1985). Intellectual Development: Birth to adulthood. Orlando, Fl: Academic Press. Case, R. (1992). The mind’s staircase: Exploring the conceptual underpinnings of children’s thought and knowledge. Hillsdale, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Chi, M.T.H. (1992). Conceptual change within and across ontological categories: Examples from learning and discovery in science. In R.Giere (Ed.) Cognitive Models of Science: Minnesota studies in the philosophy of science. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press Chomsky, N. (1986). Knowledge of language: Its nature, origins and use. New York: Praeger Cole, M. & Cole, S.R. (2001). The Development of Children (4th Ed.). New York : Worth Publishers Davidson, J.E. & Sternberg, R. J. (1985). Competence and performance in intellectual development. In E. Neimark, R deLisi & J.H. Newman (Eds.), Moderators of competence (pp 43-76) Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Diamond, A. (1985). Development of the ability to use recall to guide action, as indicated by infants; performance on AB. Child Development, 56, 868-883 Diamond, A. (1991). Frontal lobe involvement in cognitive changes during the first year of life. In K.R. Gibson & A.C. Petersen (Eds.) Brain maturation and cognitive development: comparative and cross-cultural perspectives. New York:Aldine de Gruyter Fischer, K.W. (1980). A theory of cognitive development: the control and construction of hierarchies of skills. Psychological Review, 87, 477-531 Flavell, J.H. (1985). Cognitive Development (2nd Ed.) Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall Flavell, J.H., Miller, P.H. & Miller, S.A. (1993). Cognitive Development (3rd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall Kail, R. (1984). The development of memory in children (2nd Ed.). New York:Freeman Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond Modulatiry: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Precis accessed at http://bbsonline.org/Preprints/OldArchive/bbs.karmsmith.html Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moral development: The nature and validity of moral stages (Vol 2). New York: Harper & Row Lutz, D.J & Sternberg, R.J. (2002). Cognitive Development. In M.H. Bornstein & M.E. Lamb (Eds.) Developmental Psychology: An advanced textbook (4th Ed.). Mahuah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Mandler, J.M. (1990). Recall of events by preverbal children. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608, 485-516 Mandler, J.M. (1998). Representation . In D. Kuhn & R.S. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology (5th Ed.): Vol 2: Cognition, perception and language. New York: Wiley Meier, R.P. & Newport, E.L. (1990). Out of the hands of babes: on a possible sign advantage in language acquisition. Language, 66, 1-23 Meltzoff, A.N. & Moore, M.K. (1994). Imitation, memory and the representation of persons. Infant Behaviour and development, 17, 83-99 Miller, P.H. (2002). Theories of Developmental Psychology (4th Ed.). New York:Worth Publishers Piaget, J. (1972). Intellectual evolution from adolescence to adulthood. Human Development, 15, 1-12 Piaget, J. (1970). Piaget’s theory. In P.H. Mussen (Ed.) Carmichaels’ manual of child psychology (Vol 1). New York:Wiley Piaget, J. (1977). The role of action in the development of thinking. In W.F. Overton & J.M. Gallagher (Eds.) Knowledge and development (Vol 1). New York:Plenum Pine, K. (1999). Theories of Cognitive Development. In D. Meuer & S.W. Millar (Eds.) Exploring Developmental Psychology: From infancy to adolescence. London:Arnold Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. New York:Oxford University Press Shaffer, D.R. (1988). Developmental Psychology: Childhood & Adolescence. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Siegler, R.S. (1991). Childrens’ thinking (2nd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall Siegler, R.S, (1998). Children’s thinking (3rd Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall Smith, P.K., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (1998). Understanding children’s development. Blackwell: Oxford Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond IQ: A triarchic theory of intelligence. New York: Cambridge University Press Vygotsky, L.S. (1934/1978). Thinking and speech. In T.N. Minick (Ed.) The collected works of L.S. Vygotsky (Vol 1). Problems of general psychology. New York:Plenum Press

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